From Central Park to Millennium Park: The History of Urban Green Space and Why We Need More
Urban green spaces — parks, gardens, and open spaces — have long been integral to the development of cities in the United States. Initially conceived as sanctuaries within industrialized urban environments, these areas have evolved into critical components of urban planning. As cities grow denser and the challenges of urbanization become more pronounced, there is a growing call to prioritize the expansion and creation of green spaces. From improving public health and fostering social equity to combating climate change, the case for more parks in American cities is stronger than ever.
The idea of incorporating green space into urban environments began to take shape in the mid-19th century. During the Industrial Revolution, American cities became increasingly congested and polluted. Factories filled cities with smoke, noise, and grime, making it difficult for residents to find relief from the harsh urban environment. The lack of public spaces for recreation and relaxation became an urgent issue as urban populations grew and industrial work took its toll on health and well-being.
Frederick Law Olmsted, the pioneering landscape architect responsible for designing Central Park in New York City, was among the first to recognize the value of urban parks as refuges from the chaos of industrial life. Completed in 1876, Central Park became the model for future urban green spaces across the United States. Olmsted’s vision was to create a space that would serve as a democratic gathering place for people of all backgrounds, offering not only a respite from city life but also promoting physical and mental well-being. His work laid the foundation for the widespread creation of parks in American cities, an important legacy that continues to shape urban planning today.
Olmsted’s success led to the development of other major parks, such as Prospect Park in Brooklyn and the Emerald Necklace in Boston. His designs emphasized the importance of open, natural landscapes in densely populated areas, making it clear that green spaces were integral to the well-being of urban residents. By the early 20th century, many American cities had begun to build public parks as both aesthetic and practical components of urban life.
In the Nation’s capital, the Rock Creek Park Act authorized the purchase of up to 2,000 acres to “be perpetually dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasure ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of the United States.” President Harrison signed the act into law in 1890, creating America’s third national park and first urban park overseen by the National Park Service.
Despite the early success of parks in urban areas, the 20th century saw a decline in the development and maintenance of green spaces. As cities expanded, the demand for land for housing, commercial development, and infrastructure often outweighed the desire for parks and green spaces. In many cases, urban parks were neglected or repurposed for other uses, such as parking lots or buildings.
The post-World War II era, marked by rapid suburbanization and the rise of the automobile, contributed further to the neglect of parks. The spread of highways through city centers displaced neighborhoods and existing green spaces, while increased reliance on cars minimized the need for pedestrian-friendly areas like parks. This practice was eventually halted by the Supreme Court in Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe which prohibited using federal funds to build highways in public parks unless no viable alternative existed and harm reduction measures were implemented.
Additionally, cities facing financial challenges often neglected park maintenance or sold public lands for commercial use. In many cases, land that could have been dedicated to green space was instead used for high-density housing or commercial development. As a result, green space became a low priority in many American cities.
However, beginning in the late 20th century, there was a renewed interest in the importance of urban green spaces. As concerns about environmental degradation, health, and quality of life began to grow, urban planners, environmentalists, and community advocates started to push for the revitalization of parks and the creation of new green spaces. The rise of the environmental movement in the 1960s and 1970s, along with increasing research into the benefits of green spaces for mental health, led to a resurgence in park creation and conservation.
Cities like New York, Chicago, and San Francisco launched major urban renewal projects that included the restoration of existing parks and the creation of new ones. The High Line, a former elevated rail track in Manhattan, was transformed into a linear park in the early 2000s, and today serves as an innovative example of urban green space regeneration. Chicago created Millennium Park out of land formerly occupied by a railyard and parking lots. Following the closure of the Presidio Army Base in 1988, the federal government and San Francisco worked together to preserve 1,480 acres of green space in the heart of the city. This trend of revitalizing unused urban land for public parks has spread to cities across the country, with efforts to reclaim vacant lots, riverfronts, and industrial spaces for public enjoyment.
The need for more parks and green spaces in American cities is more pressing today than ever before. As urban areas continue to grow at a rapid pace, parks are essential for addressing numerous challenges related to environmental sustainability, public health, social equity, and economic development.
Urban green spaces are essential in combating the adverse effects of urbanization and climate change. Cities are responsible for a significant portion of global greenhouse gas emissions, and as urban areas grow, they create “heat islands” — areas where temperatures are significantly higher than in surrounding rural areas. This phenomenon occurs because buildings, roads, and other infrastructure absorb and retain heat. Parks and green spaces, however, help mitigate the heat island effect by providing shade and cooling the air through evapotranspiration.
Moreover, parks act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2 and improving air quality. They help manage stormwater by reducing runoff and improving water absorption in the soil, which can decrease the risk of flooding in urban areas. With climate change intensifying the frequency and severity of extreme weather events, cities should prioritize the creation of green spaces to build resilience against environmental stressors.
The public health benefits of urban green spaces are also significant. Parks provide essential space for physical activity, from walking and running to playing sports or simply enjoying nature. Research has shown that access to green spaces can reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as obesity, heart disease, and diabetes. Moreover, green spaces benefit mental health by offering residents a place to relax, reduce stress, and escape the often overwhelming pace of urban life.
Additionally, access to green space is a matter of social equity. In many urban areas, low-income and minority communities are disproportionately deprived of access to parks and recreational areas. This lack of access contributes to health disparities, social isolation, and lower quality of life. By prioritizing the creation of green spaces in underserved neighborhoods, cities can address these inequities and provide residents with the benefits of nature. Parks can also foster social cohesion by creating spaces for community gatherings, cultural events, and social interaction, helping to build a sense of belonging and shared identity.
Finally, the economic value of urban parks cannot be overlooked. They can increase property values, attract tourism, and generate revenue for nearby businesses. Green spaces can act as catalysts for revitalizing neighborhoods, particularly in areas that have been neglected or abandoned. For example, parks like New York’s Central Park and Chicago’s Millennium Park have spurred surrounding economic development, creating jobs and attracting new businesses and residents.
Investing in parks also yields long-term savings for cities. Parks can lower healthcare costs by promoting physical activity, reduce the need for expensive infrastructure (such as stormwater management systems), and enhance the overall livability of urban areas, making them more attractive to residents and businesses alike.
Urban green spaces have long been recognized as vital to the health and vibrancy of American cities. From the visionary designs of Frederick Law Olmsted to the modern-day revitalization of public spaces have proven their worth in fostering public well-being, environmental sustainability, and economic prosperity. As cities continue to expand and confront the challenges of climate change, social inequality, and public health, the case for more parks is clearer than ever. Expanding green spaces in American cities is not only a necessity for environmental sustainability, but also for fostering healthier, more equitable, and more vibrant communities. Investing in parks is investing in the future of our cities — and in the well-being of those who call them home.
Nicholas Monck is a graduate of the University of Colorado Law School. He also received an Energy, Environmental, and Natural Resources Law and Policy Certificate and a Graduate Renewable Energy Certificate from the University of Colorado. He has previously written about urban planning in the University of Colorado Law Review. Opinions expressed are his own and do not represent the views of his employer.
